ba dorood, fara rasidane nav rooze bastani ra ba hama khojasta mikhovaham. va ba in naghmaye nav roozi az khorasane kohan va shahre balkh zadgahe zardosht, omid daram ke khoshi va soroor ba chehra haye shoma naqsh bandad. khodavandgare kherad yar va yavare shoma. siavashian
Donnerstag, 7. Mai 2009
Rabaab - Homaayun - Biaa ke bereem ba Mazaar
Mittwoch, 18. März 2009
PERSIAN NEW YEAR NAV ROOZ
No Ruz, new day or New Year as the Iranians call it, is a celebration of spring Equinox. It has been celebrated by all the major cultures of ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians, 3000BC, Babylonians 2000 BC, the ancient kingdom of Elam in Southern Persia 2000BC, Akaddians all have been celebrating it in one form or another. What we have today as No Ruz with its’ uniquely Iranian characteristics has been celebrated for at least 3000 years and is deeply rooted in the traditions of Zoroastrian belief system.
This was the religion of Ancient Persia before the advent of Islam 1400 years ago. It is known as the mother religion in the area. The familiar concepts of Hell, Heaven, Resurrection, coming of the Messiah, individual and last judgment were for the first time incorporated into this belief system. They still exist in Judo-Christian and Islamic traditions. In order to understand No Ruz we have to know about Zoroastrians’ cosmology.
These people believed in two primal forces. In their ancient text, Bundahishn foundation of creation, we read that The Lord of Wisdom residing in the eternal light was not God. He created all that was good and became God. The Hostile Spirit, Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), residing in the eternal darkness created all that was bad and became the Hostile Spirit (The word anger in English comes from the same origin).
Everything that produced life, protected and enriched it was regarded as good. This included all forces of nature beneficial to humans. Earth, waters, sky, animals, plants were all good. Justice, honesty, peace, health, beauty, joy and happiness were regarded as belonging to the good forces. All that threatened life and created disorder belonged to the hostile spirits.
The two worlds created did not have a material form but the essence of everything was present. The two existed side by side for three thousand years, but completely separate from each other. At the end of the third millennium the Hostile Spirit saw light, wanted it and attacked the good world. This was the beginning of all troubles we face now.
The Lord of Wisdom in order to protect his world created the material world "Gaeity",
Geety in modern Persian. This material world was created at seven different stages. The first creation was the sky, a big chunk of stone high above. The second creation was the first ocean, at the bottom. Earth a big flat dish sitting on the ocean was the third. The next three creations were the prototypes of all life forms. The first plant, the first animal a bull and the first human Gayo-maretan (Kiomarth), both male and female. The seventh creation was fire and sun together.
The struggle continues for 12000 years. There are four periods, each 3000 years. At the last phase several saviors come and the last one Saoshyant will save the world. When he comes there is resurrection, walking over the Chinvat Bridge (Sarat Bridge in Quran) and last judgement. We recognize this figure as Time Lord (Imam Zaman) in Iranian version of Shiite Islam.
In order to protect his creations the Lord of Wisdom also created six holy immortals,
Amesha Spenta one for each creation. Khashtra (Sharivar), the protector of sky, Asha-Vahishta (Ordibehesht) protected fire. Vahu Manah (Bahman) for all animals, Haurvatat
(Khordad) protected all waters, Spenta Armaiti (Esphand) a female deity protector of mother earth and Ameratat (Amurdad) supported all plant life. Ahura Mazda himself became the protector of all humans and the holy fire.
There was one problem with this material world, it did not have a life cycle. The sun did not move. There were no days or nights and no seasons. The three prototypes of life were sacrificed. From the plant came the seeds of all plants. The bull produced all animals and from the human came the first male and female. The rest of the humanity was created from their union. The cycle of life started. Sun moved, there was day, night and the seasons. This was called the first No Ruz.
The Lord of Wisdom also created guardian angles (forouhars) for all living beings. Every human had one as long as they stayed with the good forces. As we see in the myth of Azydahak in Avesta, the Zoroastrians’ holy book. We know this figure as Zahak in modern Persian. A prince, he chooses the Hostile Spirit as his protector. He was made a king, ruled for 999 years and became immortal.
Zoroaster (Zardosht) the architect of this cosmology introduced many feasts, festivals and rituals to pay homage to the seven creations and the holy immortals. Seven were amongst the most important. They are known as Gahambars, feasts of obligation. The last and the most elaborate was No Ruz, celebrating the Lord of Wisdom and the holy fire at the time of spring equinox.
The oldest archaeological record for No Ruz celebration comes from the Achaemenian (Hakhamaneshi) period over 2500 years ago. They created the first major empire in the region and built Persepolis complex (Takhte Jamshid) in central Iran. This magnificent palace/temple complex was destroyed by Alexander the Great in 334 BC.
Achaemenians had four major residences one for each season. Persepolis was their spring residence and the site for celebrating the New Year. Stone carvings show the king seated on his throne receiving his subjects, governors and ambassadors from various nations under his control. They are presenting him with gifts and paying homage to him. We do not know too much about the details of the rituals. We do know that mornings were spent praying and performing other religious rituals. Later on during the day the guests would be entertained with feasts and celebrations.
We also know that the ritual of sacred marriage took place at this palace. An ancient and common ritual in Mesopotamia, the king would spend the first night of the New Year with a young woman. Any offspring produced from this union would be sent back to the temples and they would normally end up as high-ranking religious officials. There is no evidence that this was practiced later on and was part of the New Year rituals.
What we have today as No Ruz goes back to the Sassanid period. They were the last great Persian Empire before the advent of Islam 1400 years ago. Their celebrations would start five days prior to the New Year. They believed the guardian angles (Fourohars) would come down to earth within these five days to visit their human counter parts. A major spring-cleaning was carried out to welcome them with feasts and celebrations. Bon fires would be set on rooftops at night to indicate to the guardian angles that humans were ready to receive them. This was called Suri Festival.
Modern Iranians still carry out the spring-cleaning and celebrate Wednesday Suri.
Bon fires are made and all people will jump over the fire on the last Tuesday of the year. This is a purification rite and Iranians believe by going over the fire they will get rid of all their illnesses and misfortunes. Wednesday Suri did not exist before Islam and very likely is a combination of more than one ritual to make it last.
The ancient Zoroastrians would also celebrate the first five days of No Ruz, but it was the sixth day that was the most important of all. This day was called the Great No Ruz (No Ruze bozorg) and is assumed to be the birthday of Zoroaster himself. Zoroastrians today still celebrate this day, but it has lost its significance for the rest of the Iranians. In Sassanid period the New Year would be celebrated for 21 days and on the 19th day there would be another major festival.
Modern Iranians celebrate New Year for 13 days only. The first few days are spent visiting older members of the family other relatives and friends. Gifts are exchanged; sweets and feasts will be consumed. At the last day, the 13th of the first month, all people will leave their homes to go to the parks or rural areas to spend a day in nature. Again this was not celebrated in this manner before and might be several rituals in one. A major part of the New Year rituals is setting a special table with seven specific items present, Haft Sin (Haft chin, seven crops before Islam). In the ancient times each of the items corresponded to one of the seven creations and the seven holy immortals protecting them.
Today they are changed and modified but some have kept their symbolism. All the seven items start with the letter S; this was not the order in ancient times. Wheat or barley representing new growth is still present. Fish the most easily obtainable animal and water are present. Lit candles are a symbol of fire. Mirrors are used today, origin unknown. These were expensive items in ancient times and were made from polished metal. It is unlikely that all households would have one. Zoroastrians today place the lit candle in front of the mirror. Wine was always present. Today it is replaced by vinegar since alcohol is banned in Islam.
Egg a universal symbol of fertility corresponding to the mother earth is still present. Garlic is used to warn off bad omen. This is a modern introduction. There is no evidence that it was used in that context before. However the ancient Iranians would grow seven different herbs for the New Year and garlic might have been one of those. Samano a thick brownish paste is present today. It is a nutritious meal and could have been part of the feasts. It is also possible that it has replaced Haoma.
Haoma is a scared herbal mix known for its healing properties. It was a major cult on its own with many rituals and ceremonies. The cult is still performed by the Zoroastrians today, but is abandoned by the rest of the Iranians. Coins symbolizing wealth and prosperity, fruits and special meals are present as well.
Why this festival has survived? There have been major attempts by the Muslim rulers over the centuries to minimize it, ban it or get rid of it once and for all. The reasons for their failure should be sought in the spirit of this festival. Contrary to the Islamic traditions where death and martyrdom mark all the major rituals, No Ruz is a celebration of life.
Forces of nature completely beyond them dominated people in ancient times. They formed a union with these forces to protect themselves. Through this union they created a balance and maintained the cosmic order Asha. Without it there would be chaos, the world of the Hostile Spirit (Ahriman). The Zoroastrians were and are required to have the same mind, the same voice and act the same way as their god the Lord of Wisdom.
They are expected to only think of good things, speak the good words and act the good deeds. Our celebrated poet Ferdousi over a thousand years ago virtually single handedly translated Avestan mythology into modern Persian. A Zoroastrian who was persecuted all his life because of his fate; he starts his book in the name of the Lord of Life and Wisdom (beh nameh khodavand jaan o kherad). The lord of life and wisdom was Ahura Mazda’s title in the Avestan texts of the Sassanid period.
Lord or not, life and wisdom are what that makes us humans. We are the only beings who know we have a life and what we do with our lives depend on the wisdom. At the end of the millennium with the mess this planet is in we need that wisdom more than ever. Creating a balance with nature and maintaining order are very relevant. These are the lessons we can learn from such a wonderful and ancient tradition. So happy New Year, enjoy the festival. Joy and happiness were regarded as major forces defeating the hostile spirits. This is why we are still celebrating this occasion after 3000 years.
This was the religion of Ancient Persia before the advent of Islam 1400 years ago. It is known as the mother religion in the area. The familiar concepts of Hell, Heaven, Resurrection, coming of the Messiah, individual and last judgment were for the first time incorporated into this belief system. They still exist in Judo-Christian and Islamic traditions. In order to understand No Ruz we have to know about Zoroastrians’ cosmology.
These people believed in two primal forces. In their ancient text, Bundahishn foundation of creation, we read that The Lord of Wisdom residing in the eternal light was not God. He created all that was good and became God. The Hostile Spirit, Angra Mainyu (Ahriman), residing in the eternal darkness created all that was bad and became the Hostile Spirit (The word anger in English comes from the same origin).
Everything that produced life, protected and enriched it was regarded as good. This included all forces of nature beneficial to humans. Earth, waters, sky, animals, plants were all good. Justice, honesty, peace, health, beauty, joy and happiness were regarded as belonging to the good forces. All that threatened life and created disorder belonged to the hostile spirits.
The two worlds created did not have a material form but the essence of everything was present. The two existed side by side for three thousand years, but completely separate from each other. At the end of the third millennium the Hostile Spirit saw light, wanted it and attacked the good world. This was the beginning of all troubles we face now.
The Lord of Wisdom in order to protect his world created the material world "Gaeity",
Geety in modern Persian. This material world was created at seven different stages. The first creation was the sky, a big chunk of stone high above. The second creation was the first ocean, at the bottom. Earth a big flat dish sitting on the ocean was the third. The next three creations were the prototypes of all life forms. The first plant, the first animal a bull and the first human Gayo-maretan (Kiomarth), both male and female. The seventh creation was fire and sun together.
The struggle continues for 12000 years. There are four periods, each 3000 years. At the last phase several saviors come and the last one Saoshyant will save the world. When he comes there is resurrection, walking over the Chinvat Bridge (Sarat Bridge in Quran) and last judgement. We recognize this figure as Time Lord (Imam Zaman) in Iranian version of Shiite Islam.
In order to protect his creations the Lord of Wisdom also created six holy immortals,
Amesha Spenta one for each creation. Khashtra (Sharivar), the protector of sky, Asha-Vahishta (Ordibehesht) protected fire. Vahu Manah (Bahman) for all animals, Haurvatat
(Khordad) protected all waters, Spenta Armaiti (Esphand) a female deity protector of mother earth and Ameratat (Amurdad) supported all plant life. Ahura Mazda himself became the protector of all humans and the holy fire.
There was one problem with this material world, it did not have a life cycle. The sun did not move. There were no days or nights and no seasons. The three prototypes of life were sacrificed. From the plant came the seeds of all plants. The bull produced all animals and from the human came the first male and female. The rest of the humanity was created from their union. The cycle of life started. Sun moved, there was day, night and the seasons. This was called the first No Ruz.
The Lord of Wisdom also created guardian angles (forouhars) for all living beings. Every human had one as long as they stayed with the good forces. As we see in the myth of Azydahak in Avesta, the Zoroastrians’ holy book. We know this figure as Zahak in modern Persian. A prince, he chooses the Hostile Spirit as his protector. He was made a king, ruled for 999 years and became immortal.
Zoroaster (Zardosht) the architect of this cosmology introduced many feasts, festivals and rituals to pay homage to the seven creations and the holy immortals. Seven were amongst the most important. They are known as Gahambars, feasts of obligation. The last and the most elaborate was No Ruz, celebrating the Lord of Wisdom and the holy fire at the time of spring equinox.
The oldest archaeological record for No Ruz celebration comes from the Achaemenian (Hakhamaneshi) period over 2500 years ago. They created the first major empire in the region and built Persepolis complex (Takhte Jamshid) in central Iran. This magnificent palace/temple complex was destroyed by Alexander the Great in 334 BC.
Achaemenians had four major residences one for each season. Persepolis was their spring residence and the site for celebrating the New Year. Stone carvings show the king seated on his throne receiving his subjects, governors and ambassadors from various nations under his control. They are presenting him with gifts and paying homage to him. We do not know too much about the details of the rituals. We do know that mornings were spent praying and performing other religious rituals. Later on during the day the guests would be entertained with feasts and celebrations.
We also know that the ritual of sacred marriage took place at this palace. An ancient and common ritual in Mesopotamia, the king would spend the first night of the New Year with a young woman. Any offspring produced from this union would be sent back to the temples and they would normally end up as high-ranking religious officials. There is no evidence that this was practiced later on and was part of the New Year rituals.
What we have today as No Ruz goes back to the Sassanid period. They were the last great Persian Empire before the advent of Islam 1400 years ago. Their celebrations would start five days prior to the New Year. They believed the guardian angles (Fourohars) would come down to earth within these five days to visit their human counter parts. A major spring-cleaning was carried out to welcome them with feasts and celebrations. Bon fires would be set on rooftops at night to indicate to the guardian angles that humans were ready to receive them. This was called Suri Festival.
Modern Iranians still carry out the spring-cleaning and celebrate Wednesday Suri.
Bon fires are made and all people will jump over the fire on the last Tuesday of the year. This is a purification rite and Iranians believe by going over the fire they will get rid of all their illnesses and misfortunes. Wednesday Suri did not exist before Islam and very likely is a combination of more than one ritual to make it last.
The ancient Zoroastrians would also celebrate the first five days of No Ruz, but it was the sixth day that was the most important of all. This day was called the Great No Ruz (No Ruze bozorg) and is assumed to be the birthday of Zoroaster himself. Zoroastrians today still celebrate this day, but it has lost its significance for the rest of the Iranians. In Sassanid period the New Year would be celebrated for 21 days and on the 19th day there would be another major festival.
Modern Iranians celebrate New Year for 13 days only. The first few days are spent visiting older members of the family other relatives and friends. Gifts are exchanged; sweets and feasts will be consumed. At the last day, the 13th of the first month, all people will leave their homes to go to the parks or rural areas to spend a day in nature. Again this was not celebrated in this manner before and might be several rituals in one. A major part of the New Year rituals is setting a special table with seven specific items present, Haft Sin (Haft chin, seven crops before Islam). In the ancient times each of the items corresponded to one of the seven creations and the seven holy immortals protecting them.
Today they are changed and modified but some have kept their symbolism. All the seven items start with the letter S; this was not the order in ancient times. Wheat or barley representing new growth is still present. Fish the most easily obtainable animal and water are present. Lit candles are a symbol of fire. Mirrors are used today, origin unknown. These were expensive items in ancient times and were made from polished metal. It is unlikely that all households would have one. Zoroastrians today place the lit candle in front of the mirror. Wine was always present. Today it is replaced by vinegar since alcohol is banned in Islam.
Egg a universal symbol of fertility corresponding to the mother earth is still present. Garlic is used to warn off bad omen. This is a modern introduction. There is no evidence that it was used in that context before. However the ancient Iranians would grow seven different herbs for the New Year and garlic might have been one of those. Samano a thick brownish paste is present today. It is a nutritious meal and could have been part of the feasts. It is also possible that it has replaced Haoma.
Haoma is a scared herbal mix known for its healing properties. It was a major cult on its own with many rituals and ceremonies. The cult is still performed by the Zoroastrians today, but is abandoned by the rest of the Iranians. Coins symbolizing wealth and prosperity, fruits and special meals are present as well.
Why this festival has survived? There have been major attempts by the Muslim rulers over the centuries to minimize it, ban it or get rid of it once and for all. The reasons for their failure should be sought in the spirit of this festival. Contrary to the Islamic traditions where death and martyrdom mark all the major rituals, No Ruz is a celebration of life.
Forces of nature completely beyond them dominated people in ancient times. They formed a union with these forces to protect themselves. Through this union they created a balance and maintained the cosmic order Asha. Without it there would be chaos, the world of the Hostile Spirit (Ahriman). The Zoroastrians were and are required to have the same mind, the same voice and act the same way as their god the Lord of Wisdom.
They are expected to only think of good things, speak the good words and act the good deeds. Our celebrated poet Ferdousi over a thousand years ago virtually single handedly translated Avestan mythology into modern Persian. A Zoroastrian who was persecuted all his life because of his fate; he starts his book in the name of the Lord of Life and Wisdom (beh nameh khodavand jaan o kherad). The lord of life and wisdom was Ahura Mazda’s title in the Avestan texts of the Sassanid period.
Lord or not, life and wisdom are what that makes us humans. We are the only beings who know we have a life and what we do with our lives depend on the wisdom. At the end of the millennium with the mess this planet is in we need that wisdom more than ever. Creating a balance with nature and maintaining order are very relevant. These are the lessons we can learn from such a wonderful and ancient tradition. So happy New Year, enjoy the festival. Joy and happiness were regarded as major forces defeating the hostile spirits. This is why we are still celebrating this occasion after 3000 years.
Samstag, 28. Juni 2008
تشکل اجتماعی و عروج حاکميت کوشانيان
مهاجرتهای گسترده اقوام آريايی از شمال به جنوب دريای اکسوس (آمو) از جمله يوءچيها و توقف آنان به مدت پنجصد سال در باختر و تخارستان مقدمات ظهور تخاريها و هجوم آنان عليه حکومت يونانيان و سقوط آنان در باختر و بدنبال آن زمينه های تشکل اجتماعی و تاسيس دولت کوشاني را ابتدا در تخارستان، بدخشان و باختر فراهم ساخت و يکصد سال بعد ازين واقعه شعبه ای ازين اقوام بنام "کوای شانگ – کوشان" به ترقيات اجتماعی چشمگيری دست يافته و بعد از فتح باختر و کابلستان تا حوالی هندوستان پيشرفتند. مؤرخ شهير افغانستان مير غلام محمد غبار اين مسئله را چنين توضيح داده است: "بعد از انقراض يونانيان سلسله ای بنام کوشان از طايفه تخارها (تخارستان و بدخشان) بعد از تصرف کابل قسمت عمده هندوستان را مسخر نمودند".([1]) در باره نژاد کوشانيها نظريات متفاوتی به ميان گذاشته شده است. در اين مورد نظرياتی وجود داردکه کوشانيان و سلاله بعدی آنان بنام يفتليان از متن کوشانيان تبارز سياسی کرده اند، از نژاد هيونگنوها يا نژاد زرد ميدانند که ايشان از پيشگامان قبايل ترک هستند. اما بيشتر مؤرخين آنها را آريايی نژاد خوانده اند و معتقدند که آنها از سرزمينهای اوليه آريائيان (ايريانم ويجو) به مناطق تخارستان و باختر و بعداً آسيای مرکزی تا هندوستان منتشر شده اند. يعنی ابتدا از ناحيه رود ايلی به سير دريا و از آنجا به جنوب رود اکسوس در بدخشان کوچيده اند. کشف کتيبه معروف رباتک در سال 1991 بدنبال کتيبه های سرخ کوتل بغلان که مربوط به دوره زمامداری امپراتور بزرگ اعليحضرت کنيشکا ميباشد، حد اقل به سه فرضيه تاريخی ذيل پاسخ روشن گفت:
1- کوشانيان بخصوص کنيشکا در اين کتيبه خود را آريايی نژاد و شهريار آريانا خوانده است.
2- زبان فرضی (باختری-تخاری) در اصل بنام زبان "آری" يعنی آريايی ناميده شده است.
3- ويمه تکتو سردسته يا مؤسس حکومت کوشانيان خوانده شده است. بناءً با پيدايش آب تيمم باطل ميشود و ديگر نبايست فرضيه های موهوم بجای اسناد و مدارک مبرهن تاريخی قرار داده شوند.
بعضی از مؤرخين نام "کوشانو" را با کلمه چينی "يوءچی" که قوم کوچی و بيابانگرد در آسيای مرکزی بودند، يکی ميدانند و عقيده دارند که اينها زمانيکه در شمال دريای آمو بودند بنام "پوچی" خوانده ميشدند و پس از عبور از دريای آمو به "تاهيا- بدخشان" با ساکنان محلی آميزش نموده و نام جديدی "کوشان- کوچيان" را اختيار کرده اند. به نظر آنها قبايل اوليه کوشانی بنام تايوءچه يا يوءچيهای معروف نيز ياد شده اند و سرزمينشان را بنام کيوشانگ وانگ Kuei Shang Wang يعنی سرزمين کوشانيان ناميده اند. سايکس باور دارد که در دهه سوم قرن اول ميلادی "کوايشانگ" يا کوشان سردسته قبيله پوچی (يوءچی) راه و رسم کوچی گری را ترک گفته به کشاورزی روی آوردند و امپراتوری وسيعی را ايجاد کردند، که از باختر به طرف جنوب گسترش و پهنا داشت و در شمالغرب هند جانشين گندو فارس و پاکوريس گرديد، گندو فارس سلطنت ساکا را در 19 ميلادی تحت سلطه مستقيم خود در آورده بودند([2]).
کوشانيها در منابع تاريخی بنامهای مختلفی ثبت گرديده اند مثل "کوشانو، کهوشانو، کيوشانا، کيورشانا و کوشان" در منابع بومی آريايی، "کورسفو، کورونو، کورانو، کورسانو، خورانو" در تلفظ يونانی و در منابع عربی بنام "کوشان" آمده اند. در کتب دوره اسلامی از جمله مسالک و ممالک که اصطخری بنام کوشان تذکار يافته و آنها را از قوم تخارها ياد کرده است.
کوشانيان از سده اول ميلادی تا پايان قرن چهارم دولت معظمی را در پهنای آسيای مرکزی تا هندوستان بوجود آورده و بر آريانای شرقی تسلط سياسی داشتند، که همزمان با آنها در بخش آريانای غربی ساسانيها حکومت ميکردند. زمانی حکومت کوشانيان به سه دوره تقسيم شده است. يعنی کوشانيان بزرگ، کوشانيان خورد يا کيداريها و ردبيل شاهان که از اتحاد بقايای کوشانی و يفتلی عبارت بوده اند.
کوشانيان بزرگ با نام کچولا کدفيزيس فرزند ويمه کدفيزيس فرزند تيکتو آغاز ميگردد، که در سال 25 ميلادی از باختر به کابلستان آمد و اين شهر را از انسی آخرين شهزاده پارتی اشکانی تصرف نمود.([3]) کدفزيس اول فرمانروايی پيروزمندانه ای داشت.
ويمه کدفيزيس دوم (50- 90) ميلادی بر متصرفات کدفيزيس اول از باختر تا شمالغرب هند تا وادی گنگا و بنارس حکومت نمود. در کتيبه ای که از تکسيلا در ناحيه پوروشاپورا (پشاور) بدست آمده است اين کتيبه در دوره سلطنت يک زمامدار کوشانی که ملقب به پادشاه بزرگ بوده بنا گذاشته شده است، که باستان شناسان اين کتيبه را به ويمه کتفيزيس نسبت داده اند.
دوره حاکميت ويمه کدفيزيس دوره رونق ارتباطات و فعال سازی مسيرهای جاده ابريشم بوده که علاوه بر امتعه بازرگانی استعدادها و هنر خلاقه مردم در قلمرو کوشانيان بخصوص از معبر بدخشان و تخارستان ترويج و تعاطی ميشدند.
در سال 73 ميلادی امپراتور "مينک" محل کليدی را که بر آن جاده تجارتی ابريشم ميگذشت و در شمال صحرای تاکلاماکان موقعيت داشت در مسير ختن و يارقند (يارکند) که بطرف جنوب آن بدخشان موقعيت دارد از فرماندار يوچی اشغال نمود و تا سال 76 ميلادی تمام ترکستان چين را در شرق پاميرات به تصرف خود درآورد.([4])
در سال 88 ميلادی يکی از فرمانروايان کوشانی به جنرال چينی پانچاو در جنگهايش عليه تورفان کمک نمود و باج و خراج به چين پرداخت و خواست تا با يکی از شاهدخت های چينی ازدواج نمايد، که اين خواسته او به مخالفت پانچاو مواجه گرديد و او را به زندان انداخت. اين پيشامد شاه کوشانی را بر افروخته ساخت و جهت اخذ انتقام لشکر 70 هزار نفری را با اسلحه مجهز به استقامت پاميرات در بدخشان مارش داد، اما لشکر مذکور بخاطر طی نمودن راههای صعب العبور و سرد و کمبود مواد غذايی از سوی پانچاو شکست خورد و امور خراج گذاری بازهم بگونه ای ادامه يافت و پانچاو تا سال 91 ميلادی تا غرب بحيره کسپين سلطه چين را برقرار نمود. موصوف در سال 97 ميلادی يکی از افّسران خود را بنام سفير به کشور پارت اعزام نمود. سفير مذکور از راه هيکاتم پليس (شهر صد دروازه) و همدان به ايران و پارا رود مسافرت نمود، او علاوتاً در نظر داشت تا از طريق خليج فارس به سوريه و شام رفته و با حکومت روم شرقی روابط برقرار نمايد، اما بر اساس رايزنی ناخدای کشتی که اين فاصله را بطور عادی سه ماه وانمود کرد از اجرای اين سفر منصرف گرديده و به کشورش برگشت.
اعليحضرت کنيشکا امپراتور بزرگ کوشانی (100-162) ميلادی
شکست يوچی فرماندار کوشانی در شرق پامير در سال 88 ميلادی به دست پانچاو موجب تبارز امپراتور مقتدری چون کنيشکا در راس خانواده کوشانيان و قلمرو سلطنت آنان گرديد. هر چند سالهای زمامداری کنيشکا به صورت مشخص معلوم نيست، اما پس از ورشکستگی سياسی ناشی از هجوم لشکر چين بمقام سلطنت برداشته شده و مرحله جديدی را در استقرار، توسعه و تحکيم دولت کوشانيها پيريزی نموده است. کنيشکا سلطنت خود را با استقرار در دو پايتخت پوروشاپورا بحيث پايتخت زمستانی و بگرام بحيث پايتخت تابستانی رهبری ميکرده است.
بازيافته های فراوان و چشمگيری از ساحه وادی کوهدامن و کاپيسا مربوط به دوره حکومت کوشانيان و تسلط دين بودا نشان ميدهد که اين سرزمين مورد توجه و دقت زمامداران کوشانی بخصوص امپراتور کنيشکا قرار داشته است. در تمام قلمرو کوشانيان تساهل دينی و پلوراليزم عقيدتی حکمفرمايی داشت و صومعه ها و استوپه های مذهبی فراوانی در اين دوره ساخته شده اند. کنيشکای بزرگ در اوايل سلطنت خود کوهستانهای کشمير و چترال را ضميمه قلمرو سلطنتی خود نمود و سرزمين خود را بيشتر از نياکانش توسعه داد. کنيشکا نميخواست باج گذاری به دولت چين را که از گذشته معمول گرديده بود ادامه دهد. ازينرو لشکر قوی را به امتداد بدخشان سوق نمود و از گذرگاههای پامير بسوی ايالت سينکيانگ چين (کاشغر و يارکند) مارش داد و ختن، يارکند و کاشغر را جزوی امپراتوری خود نمود، که موفقيتهای نامبرده مورد تائيد نگارشگران چينی بخصوص هيوان تسانگ قرار گرفته است. آنان تائيد نموده اند که ختن در سال 152 ميلادی ضميمه امپراتوری کنيشکا گرديده و فرمان اين پادشاه سترگ در بخشی از سرزمين چينيان واجب الاجرا گرديده است. شهريار بزرگ کوشانی که خود پيرو ديانت زردشتی (آئين آريائيان) بود در اواخر سلطنت خود به کيش بودايی علاقه فراوان گرفت و تحت تاثير اين گرايش دينی وی بسياری از مجسمه ها و هيکل های رجال بزرگ دولتی و روحانی بودايی در مکتب آرت و هنر "گنداهارا" به بهترين صفت هنری ساخته شده اند، که تبارز اين آثار حيرت انگيز قبل از همه مديون اراده هنر پرورانه و فرهنگی کنيشکا ميباشند. قبل بر اين زمامداران کوشانی در زمينه رشد هنر گنداهاری به مثابه آميزه از هنر يونانی و باختری توجهات لازم مبذول نموده بودند و آشوکا پادشاه موريائی بودائي هند در اين زمينه تلاشهائی را در قرن سوم پيش از ميلاد راه اندازی نموده بود، اما کنيشکا همه اين عرصه ها را (هيکل سازی، استوپه ها و صومعه های دينی، سنگنبشته ها، معماری، شهرسازی، مسکوکات فلزی، طلايی و نقره يی) را به حد کمال تشويق و حمايت نمود.
در قرن دوم ميلادی کنيشکا يک دندان بودا را به سفير چين اهدا نمود و يکی از سران يوچی يک کاپی کتاب مقدس بودايی را به هيئت نماينده گی چين در کشورش نيز اهدا کرد که گفته ميشود بدين وسيله اين مذهب به فواصل معين و تدريجی در چين سرايت کرد و تا امپراتوری روم توسعه يافت. لازم به تذکر است که بوديزم بعد از سال (565) پيش از ميلاد بوسيله سيدارتا در هند بوجود آمد، اما در قرن سوم پيش از ميلاد توسط مورياييها به کابلستان، باميان، باختر و بدخشان راه يافت و باميان بستر مناسبی برای ترويج اين ديانت بسوی کشورهای جنوبشرق آسيا و چين گرديد. بوديزم در آريانای عصر کوشانی حيثيت ديانت جديدی را اختيار کرد و بحيث يک نظام درويشانه دينی که تبليغ ميکند "بعد از اين زنده گی را ديگر پايانی نيست در قلب مومنين تجلی انوار پرتو افگن است و به نيايش و ادعيات آنها گوش ميدهد" چنانچه وينسنت سميت ابراز نموده در يک کلمه ميتوان گفت که "احترام به معبودی که از اين دار شتافته است به عيادت ناجی زنده ای حلول کرده است"([5]).
پس از کنيشکا در سال (162- 185) هويشکا به نماينده گی پدرش ايالات هند را در جنوب اداره ميکرد و به مجرد مرگ کنيشکا به کرسی جاه و جلال سلطنت کوشانی تکيه زد. کارنامه های او بصورت مشخص مورد مطالعه قرار نگرفته است، اما بی ترديد او ادامه دهنده راه و روش فرهنگ گستر اجداد خود بوده است.
دوره حاکميت واسوديوا که در سال 220 ميلادی بدست شاهپور اول بر افتاد ([6]) شيرازه امپراتوری کوشانی از هم پاشيد، و سلاله های کوچک کوشانی در دره های پنجشير و مناطق مجاور آن تا هجوم رعشه افگن يفتلی ها در قرن پنجم ميلادی حکمرانی داشتند، که آثار شگرف اين دوره از دره پنجشير به دست آمده است. برخی از امارتهای کوچک سلاله کوشانی حتی تا تصرف خراسان بزرگ بدست سپاه عرب تا قرن هفتم ميلادی وجود داشتند. اردشير بابکان مؤسس سلاله ساسانی در قرن سوم ميلادی طی يک حمله گسترده به هند به حاکميت آخرين بقايای کوشانيان در شمال آنکشور که به زمامداران کابل خراج ميپرداختند پايان داد.([7])
پادشاهان کوشانی از پيروان و مشوقين جدی دين بودا بودند. راجع به تمدن دوره کوشانيها تحت دستاوردهای هنری مکتب گندارها را مثل (معماری، نقاشی، مجسمه سازی، شهر سازی، ظروف سفالی و شيشه ای و غيره) نميتوان درين نگرش کوتاه معلومات داد، اما ميتوان گفت که مفتخر ترين بازيافتهای باستان شناسی در موزيم های کشورهای آسيای مرکزی مربوط به عصر زمامداری کوشانيها و عروج هنری مکتب آرت و هنر گنداهارا که توسط آنان بوجود آمد ميباشد.
دکتر صاحبنظر مرادی
رویکرد ها:---------------------------------------------------------
[1] - جغرافيای تاريخی افغانستان، مير غلام محمد غبار، سال 1367 کابل.
[2] - سايکس، تاريخ افغانستان، ص 120.
[3] - صاحبنظر مرادی ، کابل در گذرگاه تاریخ، بخش کوشانيان.
[4] - به نقل از تاريخ چين تحت عنوان "یوهانشو"، تفسير رخدادها را از 25 ميلادی به بيان گرفته، نقل از سايکس، ص 121.
[5] - پيرسی سايکس ، تاريخ افغانستان، ترجمه عبدالوهاب فنايی، ص 122.
[6] - مير غلام محمد غبار، جغرافيای تاريخ افغانستان، ص 200.
[7] - سايکس، همانجا ، ص 123.
Donnerstag, 29. Mai 2008
به شهید کلکان
کتیبه دیواری
افسانه ای عشق تو به تکرار نوشتند
در وصف قدت آیت بسیار نوشتند
شور نظرت را به غزلپاره سرودند
نام تو بهر کو چه بدیوار نوشتند
در احتراق بزرگ ، بادو زبان سرخ آویخته از چشما نش به آیینه ها سخن میگفت هنگامیکه سربازان پس از تحصین طولانی دهکده ها ، نا امید به خانه های خود بر گشتند . نقش پایش آوازه بود وراه ها هنوزرنگین کمانی انداز اسرار.
شب در سیاهی گم شده است ،ستاره ای میدرخشد ، مرداب خوابیده است تنها سگها خواب ناآرامی دارند . ماشه ای
مسلسل نفس های عمیقی کشید ستاره وسرب ، استاده و مذاب در هم شدند . میخواستم لحظه ای بخوابم اگر این سگ سیاه صاحب مرده بگذارد.
عابر گذشته است و سایه اش هنوز بر سینه ای دیوار ها میرقصد با امتداد و ارتفاعی که نسبت ابریشمینی دارد با شانه
هایش. پرنده گان بلند پرواز ، بی نشانه ای را جستجو میکنند در آشیانه ای بر شانه های هندو کش .
اسپی سفیدی بی سواری که از معبر عقربه ای ساعت میگذرد ،تجلی یادواره ای است که این شهربا او آشنااست.
رستم فرزند ابولقاسم است اما او از بیضه ای سفید پایمردی های خود سر بر کرده است.
کسانیکه پنجره ها را گشوده اند میدانند که در این آسمان ستاره ای میدرخشد دنباله دار.
مسعود قانع
22-05-08
به شهدای راه آزادی
تقدیم به زنده یاد مجید کلکانی
یاد تو چون ستاره ای
شب زنده دار ِمه
در آسما ن خاطر من
ره کشوده است.
آتش گرفته پرده ای پندار من کنون .
یاد تو چون بهار
پروانه های عاشق آزادی را بشوق
در کوره راه رزم و نبرد
رهنمون شود .
یاد تو همچو خون
بر تار و پود هستی ما
میدود مدام
ای رود پر خروش
سرکش، شتا بگر
ستیزنده پر زجوش .
ای شبنم امید همه خانوار رنج
از شاخ زندگانی ما
چون چکیده ائی؟ .
ای جرقه ای حیات
در شام زندگانی پر درد و رنج ما
چون آفتاب سرخ
پرتو فگن شدی
افسوس ..... ولی
چه زود
خفاش تیره دل خون ترا مکید .
با ما بگوی تو
ای پاسبان مام وطن
دیدهء ترا
چون با حریر مکر و خیانت فریفتند ؟
آیا کدام آب زلال لیک تیره دل
آورد ترا بدام و آنگه گریختند؟ .
با ما بگوی تو
در قتلگاه تو
در آن شب سیه
دستان پر زخدعه و نیرنگ
دشمنان
این دوستان مرگ
بر آفتاب چهره ای تو تیغ چون کشید؟ .
ای پاسدار مام وطن
از تو زنده است
پایا و ماندگار
بر صفحهء حیات
بر گهنامه ای زمان
مام وطن، نام وطن .
نام تو ای شهید
ره آرمان خلق
چون حرف حرف
پاک خداوند در طاق
سینه ام
جاوید گشته است .
نام تو ای شهید
عیّار ای مجید
زینت ده درفش
همه رهروان عدل
پرسندگان داد
پویندگان راه ستیز
راه زندگی .
داکتر عبدالله محمودی
۲۸می،۲۰۰۸ ،سدنی
Courtesy http://goftaman.com/daten/fa/index.htm
Dienstag, 27. Mai 2008
Tajik Movements in Samarqand and Bukhara and the Uzbek retaliation and Crimes against Tajik Communities
This has been a case study through risk assesment department of Center for Internatonal Development and Conficlt Management, about the birthplace of Tajik civilization. This shows how the international community turns a blind eye on this conflict region that has been a result of Russian opression on Tajik lands during the 19th century.
Risk Assessment
In 1989 the Uzbek Tajiks seemed to have constituted one of the major threats to the territorial integrity of Uzbekistan. On the one hand, they were a large and regionally concentrated group which populated Samarkand and Bukhara, both Tajik historical cities situated in eastern Uzbekistan adjacent to Tajikistan. In addition, the ethnic Tajiks established a national movement which formulated its claims in terms of territorial autonomy and boundary adjustment. By the late 1990s, however, the Uzbek Tajiks no longer looked like a serious challenger to the Uzbek state or President Karimov’s regime. For a variety of reasons, including domestic economic tribulations as well as the civil war that raged in neighboring Tajikistan during the mid-1990s, Karimov chose a decidedly authoritarian approach to governing and launched a war against all opposition groups early after independence; this included a crackdown on ethnic Tajiks. Arrests of the leaders and members of the Tajik national movement in 1992 deflated its initial successes and transformed the movement into a loose network of affiliations that became less politicized. While some analysts have attempted to interpret events in Central Asia as fostering Tajik nationalism in Uzbekistan (e.g. the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan operating from bases in Tajikistan with an explicit goal of overthrowing President Karimov), evidence has thus far proven limited.
Risk of Tajik rebellion is moderate to low. While the group is territorially concentrated and faces a degree of discrimination from the regime, Tajiks have lacked significant political organization since 1994, relying instead on cultural associations. There have been no incidents of recent political violence carried out by the group, and protest has been very low; although this is likely more to do with the strict authoritarian policies of the Uzbek government than a lack of grievances. Perhaps the sole achievement of which the ethnic Tajiks can boast is the official recognition of their status as a separate nationality group, but this was arguably more of a legacy of Soviet nationality policies than successful political lobbying. The regime in neighboring Tajikistan has shown no willingness to support irredentist policies of Tajiks in Uzbekistan, which further undermines Tajiks’ ability to oppose the state violently. One area of increasing concern for the regime is not Tajik nationalism, but rather an overarching Islamic identity, which some believe could pose a significant challenge now or in the future. The explicitly non-violent Hizb ut-Tahrir organization, which is banned in all Central Asian states, appears to enjoy wide support among Tajiks in Uzbekistan, especially in the south-west.
While the risk is small in the near future, unless Tajik cultural and political grievances are successfully addressed, they remain a potential target for mobilization against the Karimov regime.
Analytic Summary
The Soviet Socialist Republic of Uzbekistan was established in 1924 and initially it included present day Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In 1929 Uzbekistan and Tajikistan were separated, but both remained Union Republics within the Soviet Union until 1991, when both countries became independent.
Among the numerous ethnic groups living in Uzbekistan, Tajiks are third in size following the Uzbek majority and ethnic Russians. Tajiks mainly populate two large cities, Samarkand and Bukhara (GROUPCON = 1), which are known to have been Tajik historical centers and to have contributed significantly to the development of Tajik culture in Central Asia. The population size and the territorial concentration of the ethnic Tajiks have caused periodic tension in Uzbek-Tajik relations, which were characterized by animosity and territorial disputes through much of the Soviet era. Yet, serious inter-ethnic conflicts were to grow only with the collapse of central Soviet rule and the establishment of independent Central Asian republics.
In the course of the past decade, ethnic Tajiks have undergone a rapid political and organizational regression. Having emerged in 1989 as an ethnoseparatist group which demanded autonomy (AUTOGR496 = 3; AUTGR596 = 2), removal of borders between Samarkand and Bukhara, and the establishment of an autonomous republic by the name of Sogadiana, the group soon disintegrated into smaller and less significant factions (1992). The initially strong separatist ambitions have likewise faded, replaced with political grievances centering on participation and rights within the Uzbek system (POLGR203, POLGR303, POLGR403 = 2) and cultural grievances centering on language rights (CULGR303 = 1, CULGR403 = 2). The major factor which contributed to this development was the policy of Islam Karimov, president of Uzbekistan, which made impossible any significant manifestation of organized communal interest in the country. In practical terms, Karimov decided to suppress the nationalist Tajik movement in 1992, and little has been heard of the movement since. The only achievements on which the group could claim as a result of its political activities was the recognition of ethnic Tajiks as a nationality group in Uzbekistan and Tajik as an official language.
The current status of the ethnic Tajiks, and the moderate policy of neighboring Tajikistan toward its kindred groups abroad, suggest that the ethnic Tajiks will remain a relatively inactive community, largely excluded from Uzbek political life. Yet what might change this situation is the increasing activity of opposition groups organized around religious, not national, principals. These groups include the rebellious Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU, now sometimes referred to as the Islamic Movement of Central Asia or Turkestan), and the non-violent Hizb ut-Tahrir, which operates throughout Central Asia illegally and appears to have support among the Tajiks of Uzbekistan. Both organizations seek to overthrow the secularist governments in Central Asia and establish a caliphate, but their strategies appear to differ on the use of violence. The activities of the IMU have diminished since their bases in Afghanistan were obstructed following the American invasion in 2001, but it nevertheless remains active. Recruitment by the IMU of ethnic Tajiks has resulted in increased government repression. In August 2000, large numbers of Tajiks living in the mountains along the Tajikistan-Uzbekistan border were forcefully evacuated and resettled, with large numbers arrested for suspected complicity with militants. While this sparked verbal protest by the government of Tajikistan, ethnic Tajiks in Uzbekistan remained quiescent (PROT00 = 0).
Hizb ut-Tahrir has been a growing force in the region since 2000 or earlier and has attracted significant attention from authorities. Tajik communities have been targeted by authorities for suspected membership in Hizb ut-Tahrir, with evidence of arrests (REP101 = 3), torture (REP501 = 3), and restricted movement (REP1701-03 = 2) found for the 2001-2003 period. Again, however, incidents of protest have remained very low (PROT01-03 = 1), with violent activity non-existent (REB00-03 = 0).
References
Central Eurasian Studies Review (Publication of the Central Eurasian Studies Society). Volume 2, Number 3, Fall 2003.
CSCE Briefing, Human Rights and Democratization in the Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union, January 1993.
Digest, Monthly Newsletter of the CSCE.Europa Publications, Far East and Australia 1994.
Europe Year book, 1998, vol.II
Freedom House, Nations in Transition 2003: Uzbekistan.
Keesings Record of World Events, 1990-94.
Library of Congress on-line country reports
Liu, Morgan (2002) “The Perils of Nationalism in Independent Uzbekistan” The Journal of the International Institute (USA: University of Michigan).
Nexis Library Information, 1990-2003.
US State Department Human Rights Report: Uzbekisan (2001-2003).
US State Department International Religious Freedom Report: Uzbekisan (2001-2003).
Sonntag, 11. Mai 2008
Afghanistan(Pashtoon Land) Creation, An Indepth analysis
There has been a log of discussions, as to how, why and under which circumstances was Afghanistan created. It is no doubt that the nomadic Pashtoon tribes have lived for some period of time in the southern areas of Sullaiman Mountains. New historical facts point to one often told legend that they are a part of the lost tribes of israel. This has been under scrutiney for decades now some renowned History professors. But that is not what I wanted to explain for the moment. I was surfing through the pages today and I found a very interesting essay by Professor Lalzad, in ariaye.com which I would like to share it with you. To get the full story please click on the following link:
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